Constantine the Great: The Emperor Who Converted Rome to Christianity
School of Raphael - Vision of the Cross
On the day of this post’s publishing, the 28th day of the blessed month of Paremhotep (April 6th), Emperor Constantine the Great is commemorated in the Coptic Orthodox Synaxarion for his departure in the year 53 of the martyrs (337 AD).
The reign of Constantine the Great (r. 306–337 AD) marks a pivotal chapter in both Roman and Christian history. As the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, Constantine played an instrumental role in the legitimization and spread of the Christian faith across the empire. His influence was not limited to theological shifts—his legacy is also deeply embedded in the coinage of his era, which reflects the evolving religious and political landscape of late antiquity.
Modern bronze statue of Constantine I in York, England, near the spot where he was proclaimed Augustus in 306
From Pagan Emperor to Christian Convert
Born around 272 AD, Flavius Valerius Constantinus rose to power during a time of political turmoil. After the death of his father Constantius Chlorus in 306, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his troops. His path to sole rulership was marked by civil war, most famously culminating in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 AD against his rival Maxentius.
Constantius appoints Constantine as his successor by Peter Paul Rubens, 1622
According to tradition, on the eve of the battle, Constantine experienced a divine vision. He reportedly saw a cross of light in the sky accompanied by the words "In hoc signo vinces" (“In this sign, you will conquer”). Following this, he instructed his soldiers to paint the Christian Chi-Rho symbol on their shields. After his victory, Constantine attributed his success to the Christian God and began a dramatic shift in imperial policy.
The Edict of Milan and Christian Favor
In 313 AD, Constantine and his co-emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, which granted religious tolerance throughout the empire and ended the persecution of Christians. This act marked a turning point for Christianity, allowing it to emerge from the shadows into public life.
Constantine did not make Christianity the state religion—this would come later under Emperor Theodosius I—but he actively supported the Church. He granted privileges to clergy, funded the construction of churches (including the original Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem), and played a key role in organizing the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, which addressed the Arian controversy and produced the Nicene Creed.
Icon depicting the Emperor Constantine and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381
Baptism and Death
Although Constantine favored Christianity for most of his reign, he was not baptized until shortly before his death in 337 AD. This delay was not uncommon at the time, as many believed baptism should cleanse all sins, and some preferred to wait until late in life.
The Coinage of Constantine: A Religious Evolution
Coinage under Constantine offers a visual narrative of his reign and religious transformation. Roman coins had long been a tool of propaganda, and Constantine used them to communicate both his divine right to rule and his gradual Christian alignment.
Key Features of Constantine’s Coinage:
The Chi-Rho and Christian Symbols:
Later in his reign, coins began to display the Chi-Rho (XP), the first two Greek letters of “Christ.” This symbol was often paired with wreaths, stars, or crosses, signaling divine favor.
Sol Invictus Imagery:
Early in his rule, Constantine continued using pagan imagery, especially the Sun God Sol Invictus, reflecting the syncretic nature of his early policies. Some scholars believe this represented a transitional phase as he moved toward exclusive Christian symbolism.
The Labarum Banner:
Constantine’s coins sometimes feature him holding the labarum, a Christian military standard bearing the Chi-Rho. This underscored the emperor’s divine backing and portrayed him as a protector of the Christian faith.
Portraits and Inscriptions:
Constantine's busts on coins shifted from the youthful, military style to more regal, god-like imagery over time. Inscriptions such as “DN CONSTANTINVS MAX AVG” (Dominus Noster Constantine Maximus Augustus) reinforced his supreme and sacred status.
City Commemoratives:
Constantine founded Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in 330 AD as the “New Rome.” Special commemorative coins were struck featuring Victory, Roma, and Constantinopolis, symbolizing the fusion of imperial and Christian ideals.
Legacy: An Empire Reimagined
Constantine’s support of Christianity forever altered the course of Western civilization. By aligning the empire with the Church, he laid the foundation for a Christian Roman Empire and, ultimately, the Byzantine Empire (The coinage of which will be the subject matter for future posts). His coins serve as miniature monuments, documenting the ideological shift from pagan Rome to a Christian imperial order.
Through visionary leadership, religious transformation, and strategic symbolism, Constantine the Great bridged two worlds—Rome’s imperial heritage and Christianity’s spiritual promise—setting the stage for the medieval Christian West.
Emperor Trajan vs. St. Ignatius of Antioch: Times of the Highest Point in the Empire
The martyrdom of St. Ignatius of Antioch
The reign of Emperor Trajan (98–117 AD) is often remembered as one of Rome’s most prosperous and expansive eras. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, and monumental public works flourished. However, beneath this golden age of imperial glory lay the early struggles of Christianity, which was still seen as a disruptive and often illegal sect. One of the most notable Christian figures of this time was St. Ignatius of Antioch, whose martyrdom under Trajan became a cornerstone of early Christian witness and theology.
Trajan: Rome’s Soldier-Emperor
The Justice of Trajan, an 1840 history painting by the French romantic artist Eugène Delacroix
Trajan was born in Hispania and rose through the ranks as a skilled military commander before becoming emperor. He was known for his campaigns in Dacia (modern-day Romania) and Parthia, as well as for ambitious building projects like Trajan’s Forum and Trajan’s Column in Rome. Trajan is often hailed as one of the "Five Good Emperors" for his just and efficient governance.
Yet, despite his capable administration, Trajan maintained the empire’s legal stance against Christianity. Although he was not known for widespread persecution, his correspondence with Pliny the Younger—governor of Bithynia—suggests a policy of cautious suppression: Christians were not to be hunted, but if accused and unrepentant, they were to be punished.
St. Ignatius of Antioch: The Martyr Bishop
Fresco of Saint Ignatius on the south west chapel of the Hosios Loukas monastery.
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, was a prominent Christian leader in the early 2nd century. He was arrested and escorted to Rome under guard, where he was to be executed by wild beasts in the Colosseum. On this final journey, he wrote seven epistles to various Christian communities, rich with theology, exhortation, and reflections on martyrdom.
Ignatius viewed martyrdom as a direct path to union with Christ. In his letters, he urged believers to remain faithful, warned against heresies, and emphasized the role of bishops in maintaining church unity. His writings are among the earliest and most important of the Apostolic Fathers, providing invaluable insight into the beliefs and structure of the early Church. A wonderful video about Ignatius Theophorus (the God-bearer) can be found below.
The Clash: Imperial Order vs. Divine Witness
The confrontation between Trajan and Ignatius wasn’t personal, but emblematic. Trajan represented the Roman state—powerful, structured, and rooted in traditional religious practices. Ignatius, by contrast, symbolized a growing but marginalized faith that defied the state’s religious expectations.
To Rome, Christianity was subversive: it refused to worship the emperor, undermined traditional values, and created exclusive communities of believers. For Ignatius, the ultimate authority was Christ, and no imperial decree could override his commitment to that truth.
Coinage of Trajan’s Era: Messages in Metal
Coins issued during Trajan’s reign are some of the most artistically and historically significant in Roman numismatics. They reflect both the might of the empire and the ideological messages Trajan wanted to convey.
Notable Coins from the Time of Trajan:
Denarius Featuring Trajan’s Portrait:
This common silver coin showed a highly detailed bust of Trajan, often with inscriptions like “IMP TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P COS VI P P”, listing his titles and achievements.
Sestertius Depicting Trajan’s Column:
These large bronze coins celebrated his military triumphs in Dacia, showcasing Trajan’s Column, a monument that still stands in Rome.
Provincial Coinage:
Some coins depicted icons such as the Club of Herecles that were used to pay soldiers during his Parthian campaign, Trajan’s last military conquest.
Victory and Abundance Imagery:
Reverse designs often featured personifications like Victory, Abundantia (Abundance), and Fortuna, symbolizing the prosperity and stability under his reign.
While there are no coins commemorating St. Ignatius—since Christianity was not yet an accepted or state-sponsored religion—the coins of Trajan offer a contrast. They highlight the imperial ideology that early Christians like Ignatius opposed through their witness, even unto death.
Legacy: Martyrdom and Memory
Trajan died in 117 AD and was succeeded by Hadrian. He was remembered as a great emperor, and later Roman Senate declarations even deified him. The Roman senator Pliny the Younger wrote celebrated letters during his governorship of the Roman province of Bithynia in Asia Minor that is considered a great importance both for its nuanced picture of official Roman response to the emerging Christian movement and for the glimpse it offers of local Christian practice.
Meanwhile, Ignatius was remembered by the Church as a courageous martyr and theological pioneer. His letters became foundational texts, inspiring generations of Christians to remain steadfast in faith. The martyrdom of Ignatius under Trajan’s rule underscores a critical moment in early Christian history—a time when imperial power sought to preserve order and tradition, and yet seeds of transformation were being sown by a persecuted faith.
Conclusion: Two Worlds, One Empire
The lives of Trajan and Ignatius intersected in a Roman Empire at its peak, but also on the cusp of spiritual revolution. The coins of Trajan remain as enduring symbols of imperial grandeur, while the memory of Ignatius endures in the hearts and writings of the faithful. Together, they tell a story of tension between temporal authority and eternal truth—a story that continues to resonate through history.
Augustus and the Birth of Christ: A Convergence of History and True Divinity
The reign of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor (27 BCE – 14 CE), marked a transformative period in world history. As Rome transitioned from a republic to an empire under his leadership, another pivotal event was unfolding—the birth of Jesus Christ. While the Roman and Christian narratives may seem separate, they intersect in ways that shaped the course of history. One such connection is reflected in the ancient coins struck during Augustus' reign, offering a glimpse into the era in which these monumental events took place.
Augustus: Rome’s First Emperor
Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century
Born as Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Augustus emerged as the sole ruler of Rome after the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 BCE. His ascension in 27 BCE marked the end of the Roman Republic and the birth of the Roman Empire. Under his rule, Rome experienced an era of peace and stability known as the Pax Romana (Roman Peace), which lasted for over two centuries.
During his reign, Augustus initiated extensive administrative, military, and cultural reforms. He reorganized the provinces, improved infrastructure, and promoted a revival of traditional Roman religious practices. His influence extended across the Mediterranean, including the province of Judea, where the birth of Jesus Christ occurred around 4 BCE.
The Birth of Christ During Augustus' Reign
According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus was born in Bethlehem during the time of Augustus. The gospel account mentions that a census ordered by Augustus led Mary and Joseph to travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem, fulfilling the prophecy of the Messiah’s birth in the city of David. This decree was part of Augustus' efforts to structure the empire through taxation and administrative control.
The era of Augustus was characterized by a deep intertwining of politics and religion. While Augustus sought to revive Rome’s traditional gods and emphasize his own divine status, a new religious movement—Christianity—was quietly beginning in Judea, setting the stage for a profound transformation of the ancient world.
Our Lady of Perpetual Help, Byzantine icon, possibly 13th or 14th century
Coins of Augustus: A Window into the Era
Ancient Roman coins serve as historical artifacts that reflect the values, politics, and events of their time. Augustus’ coinage was a powerful propaganda tool, reinforcing his image as Rome’s supreme leader and divine figure.
Notable Coins Struck During Augustus' Reign:
The Denarius Featuring Augustus’ Portrait:
One of the most iconic coins of Augustus’ reign, the denarius depicted his youthful and idealized portrait, emphasizing his status as the “Princeps” (First Citizen).
Many of these coins bore the inscription “CAESAR AUGUSTUS DIVI F”, meaning “Caesar Augustus, Son of the Divine” (referring to Julius Caesar’s deification).
2. The Cistophorus of Asia Minor:
A large silver coin struck in Asia Minor, featuring Augustus’ image alongside religious symbols like temples and altars.
These coins emphasized Augustus’ role as a restorer of faith and order in the provinces.
3. The Denarius with the Capricorn Symbol:
Augustus often associated himself with Capricorn, his astrological sign, symbolizing prosperity and divine favor.
This imagery was meant to link his rule with celestial destiny.
4. Coins of Judea Under Augustus:
Though Augustus himself did not mint coins in Judea, Herod the Great, a client king under Augustus, issued coins during this time.
These featured symbols such as a tripod, anchor, and cornucopia, representing stability and divine blessing over Judea.
Legacy: Augustus and the Dawn of Christianity
Though Augustus never encountered Christianity, his reign set the political and social framework in which it emerged. The Pax Romana provided the conditions necessary for the spread of new ideas, including the teachings of Jesus. Moreover, the Roman roads and efficient administration enabled the rapid dissemination of Christian doctrine in the following centuries.
Coins from Augustus' era continue to serve as historical testimonies to a world on the brink of monumental change. They encapsulate not only the emperor’s vision of Rome but also the divine narratives that would soon reshape history.
In many ways, the reign of Augustus and the birth of Christ symbolize the confluence of the ancient and the divine, where the empire of Rome unknowingly ushered in a new faith that would eventually rise to prominence within its own borders.
Emperor Diocletian vs. St. George: A Clash of Strength & Faith
St. George, pray for us.
Throughout history, few figures stand in such stark contrast as Emperor Diocletian and St. George. One was a Roman emperor known for his fierce administrative reforms and brutal persecution of Christians, while the other became a venerated saint and symbol of Christian martyrdom. Their legacies, however, are also preserved through the lens of ancient coinage—offering a fascinating glimpse into the era in which they lived.
Diocletian: The Architect of the Tetrarchy and the Great Persecution
Head of a statue of Diocletian, 295-300 A.D., via The J. Paul Getty Museum Villa Collection, Malibu
Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305 AD) is best known for his radical reorganization of the Roman Empire. Recognizing the vast empire was too large for one ruler to govern effectively, he established the Tetrarchy—a system where power was divided among four rulers: himself, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius Chlorus. While this temporarily stabilized Rome, Diocletian is perhaps most infamous for initiating the Great Persecution (303-311 AD), the most severe crackdown on Christianity in Roman history. Under his rule, churches were destroyed, Christian texts burned, and thousands were executed for their faith, including the legendary St. George.
St. George: The Great Martyr and Legend
Byzantine icon of George. Athens, Greece
St. George was originally a Roman soldier of Cappadocian Greek origin who served in the army of Diocletian. When the emperor issued edicts demanding Christians pray up pagan goods and renounce their faith, George refused and publicly proclaimed his beliefs and tore up the edict in front of the Emperor. This act of defiance led to his imprisonment, torture, and execution in 303 AD. His unwavering faith made him a martyr, and over centuries, legends about him slaying a dragon emerged, transforming him into one of Christianity’s most celebrated saints. Below is an amazing video, the channel of which I might frequently share in future posts (So give them a like and subscribe 😉), that goes into the story in great detail.
Coinage of the Era: A Window into Power and Propaganda
Ancient coins serve as invaluable historical artifacts, reflecting the political, economic, and ideological climate of their time. During Diocletian’s reign, coinage underwent significant changes, particularly through the monetary reforms of 294 AD.
Key Coin Types from Diocletian’s Reign:
Aureus: The gold aureus continued to be issued but saw changes in weight and purity. It prominently displayed Diocletian’s image, often with inscriptions like “IMP C DIOCLETIANVS P F AVG” (Imperator Caesar Diocletianus Pius Felix Augustus), emphasizing his supreme authority.
Follis: One of Diocletian’s most important monetary reforms was the introduction of the follis, a large bronze coin with a thin silver wash. These coins often featured the emperor’s bust on the obverse and gods like Jupiter or Hercules on the reverse, reinforcing the divine right of Roman rulers.
Antoninianus: Although debased by the time of Diocletian, this coin remained in circulation but was later phased out due to its declining value
Religious Symbolism and Coinage
Notably, none of Diocletian’s coins bear any reference to Christianity, as his administration sought to reinforce traditional Roman religious values. Pagan deities dominated the reverse imagery, a stark contrast to later Christian emperors who would prominently feature crosses and saints.
While no coins from Diocletian’s time explicitly depict St. George, later Byzantine emperors honored him on their currency. These coins often show St. George as a warrior saint, reflecting his growing status as a protector of Christendom.
Manuel I Comnenus, 1143-1180. Half Tetarteron (Bronze, 19.5 mm, 2.19 g, 6 h), Type B, uncertain mint in Greece, circa 1152-1160. Ο/Γ/Ε- Γ[I]/ΟC Nimbate facing bust of St. George, holding spear and shield. Rev. MAN[...] Facing bust of Manuel, holding labarum and globus cruciger.
The Legacy of Two Titans
Diocletian’s reign left a lasting impact on the Roman Empire, particularly in governance and economic policies. Yet, despite his best efforts to suppress Christianity, he failed to halt its spread. Within a generation of his abdication, Emperor Constantine the Great would embrace Christianity, reshaping the empire’s future.
St. George, once a persecuted soldier, became one of the most revered saints in Christendom. His story of faith and defiance has been immortalized in churches, legends, and even on coins in the Byzantine and medieval periods.
Martyrdom of Saint George, by Paolo Veronese, 1564
Conclusion: Coins as a Historical Testament
Numismatics provides a tangible link to the past, offering insights into the rulers, ideologies, and economic policies of their time. The coins of Diocletian reflect an empire clinging to its traditional gods, while later Christian coinage, inspired by figures like St. George, highlights the dramatic transformation of Rome from a pagan empire to a Christian stronghold.
The clash between Diocletian and St. George remains a powerful narrative of power versus faith, with ancient coinage serving as a silent yet enduring witness to their intertwined destinies.